The Daily Bleed Detail Reference Page for the month of April
Entries on this page provide details relating to dated entries cited in the Daily Bleed Calendar, linked from there to the date(s) cited here.
The Daily Bleed Calendar in full, & access to the pages for this month, are accessible at
http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/calmast.htmThe Daily Bleed Calendar, April Reference Pages, anarchism, radical, anarchy archives, Timeline, Chronology, History, Arts, Literature, Anarchists, libertarian, Emma Goldman, syndicalism, individualist, anarchiste, anarquista, anarchist-communism"
1841 -- [April 1] US: Brook Farm, history's most famous utopian community, is founded near West Roxbury, Massachusetts. It's primary appeal was to young Bostonians who shrink from the materialism of American life, & the community was a refuge for dozens of transcendentalists, including Ralph Waldo Emerson & Nathanial Hawthorne.
Members share the farm & domestic labor. A desire to care for each other will lead to episodes such as the so-called "griddle-cake crisis," in which those eating breakfast will not be able to enjoy their pancakes while oppressed by the thought of those serving them. A Brook Farm meeting will settle the question by having the eaters turn around & serve the cooks.
A community school, providing a balance of care & freedom, is Brook Farm's most successful institution. Children mix farm work with study, music, dancing & art.
1871 -- [April 1] France: Emile Digeon is arrested...
On March 24, with news of the Parisian insurrection, the people of Narbonne had invaded City Hall, distributed the weapons, & Digeon had proclaimed the Narbonne Commune, which lasted until overwhelmed by the army yesterday.
Digeon, a revolutionary journalist/anarchist, was tried, but found innocent on the charges against him & released, November 13.
En-tête du numéro du 20 janvier 1895 (coll. perso)
[April 1] Le 1er avril 1894, sortie à Dison (Belgique) du bimensuel "Le Plébéien".
"Le Plébéien"
En-tête du numéro du 20 janvier 1895 (coll. perso)
Se proclamant d'abord "Organe de combat pour l'émancipation des travailleurs" puis "Journal communiste-anarchiste" et enfin "Sociologie -Arts - Littérature". Victime de la répression policière, seuls 4 numéros verront le jour en 1894. Mais le journal réapparaît dès le 6 janvier 1895 et ce jusqu'à la fin de l'année.
"Nous sommes ... des révoltés. Nous luttons pour aider à la naissance d'une société égalitaire où l'individu puisse se mouvoir librement, sans entrave de la part d'un pouvoir quelconque. Nous combattons l'ordre des choses actuel et tous nos efforts tendront à soulever les individus contre la savante tyrannie et les tracasseries bêtes de nos maîtres... "
1896 -- [April 1] US: Back in New York this month, Emma Goldman resides with Edward Brady in a German neighborhood on Eleventh Street
Emma earns a meager living as a midwife & nurse, witnessing the plight of many women suffering from unwanted pregnancies.
She persuades Alexander Berkman to appeal to the Pennsylvania Board of Pardons for his release from prison. She helps to launch a broad-based campaign for his case, & also solicits Voltairine de Cleyre's support.
Emma also helps to arrange lectures for the English anarchist & labor leader John Turner, whose visit gives her the opportunity to gain experience addressing English-speaking audiences. (Turner was eventually arrested, in 1903, & booted out of the country for voicing his anarchist views.)
[Details / context]
Emma rebels against Brady's periodic fits of jealousy. She also begins to suffer from "nervous attacks," attributed to an inverted womb, but is unwilling to undergo surgery to resolve the problem.
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1901 -- [April 1] Francisco Ascaso. Anarchist militant/CNT member. Member of "Los Solidarios".
Several members of Nosotros, an FAI action group. Those pictured include the three most well-known figures, Garcia Oliver, Francisco Ascaso, & Buenaventura Durruti.
Francisco Ascaso Abadia was part of "Los Solidarios" with Durruti, Gregorio Jover, Juan García Oliver, Antonio Ortiz, Ricardo Sanz, etc. They fought against the "Pistoleros" (hired by cleric employers to assassinate trade unionists).
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In 1923, the Soldevila Cardinal of Saragossa — who financed the pistoleros — was shot & they were forced to flee to France, where they opened the "International Bookshop", before leaving for Cuba & Latin America. Returning to France, on June 2, 1926 they were busted while planning an attack on the king of Spain.
Louis Lecoin defended them & rallied public opinion in their favor. They were expelled & prohibited from France, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, etc.
On May 1, 1936, Ascaso participated in the congress of the CNT.
On July 18, when Franco's troops attempt their fascist coup, the anarchists in Barcelona rose up & battled them.
Francisco Ascaso died on July 20 in the famed assault against the barracks of Atarazanas.
En-tête du numéro trois du 1er mai 1914 (coll. perso)
[April 1]
"Le Réveil Anarchiste"
Le 1er avril 1914, sortie aux Lilas (près de Paris) du premier numéro du journal "Le Réveil Anarchiste". Il succède en fait au "Réveil Anarchiste Ouvrier" qui était publié depuis le 15 novembre 1912. Parmi le comité de rédaction du journal et ses collaborateurs citons les noms d'Edouard Boudot, Eugène Jacquemin, Edouard Sené, Christian Cornelissen, Charles-Ange Laisant, Charles Malato, Benoit Broutchoux, Jean Wintsch, etc.
Le gérant et les principaux rédacteurs seront emprisonnés à l'automne 1913. Le journal reparaît donc sous un autre nom ce premier avril, mais seulement trois numéros verront le jour.
1927 -- [April 1] Le 1er avril 1927, sortie à Barcelone (Catalogne) du premier numéro de "Etica" Revue d'Education Individuelle, Philosophie, Littérature, Art et Naturisme.
"Etica"
En-tête du premier numéro
Ecléctique, elle comptera de nombreux collaborateurs comme Isaac Puente, E. Armand, Federica Montseny, Han Ryner, Emma Goldman, etc. La revue s'arrêtera en janvier 1929, laissant la place à "Iniciales". Mais le titre "Etica" reparaîtra à Valencia entre 1935-1936.
1936 -- [April 1] England: During this month Emma Goldman leaves London for Nice
Alexander Berkman is still hospitalized; in spite of Emmy Eckstein's worsening health, she & Emma visit him daily.
Emma also writes to drama organizations in Britain & places advertisements in drama publications, soliciting lecture dates for the fall: she offers to speak on Eugene O'Neill, Clifford Odets, & other contemporary playwrights, as well as on "Soviet Literature, Its Struggle & Its Promise."
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1974 --
Dernier numéro du journal, décembre 1983.
"Le Réfractaire"
[April 1] Le 1er avril 1974, sortie à Paris du premier numéro du mensuel "Le Réfractaire" Journal de l'association des Amis de Louis Lecoin.
"Social, pacifiste, libertaire" puis "Organe libertaire pour la défense de la Paix et des libertés individuelles" publié par May Picqueray. Le journal s'arrêtera après son décès en décembre 1983.
Ferdinand Félix Fortin spent time in prison, in 1935 & 1936, for publishing anti-militarist articles which included an extract from the Handbook of the Soldier written by the anarcho-syndicalist Georges Yvetot in 1903.
In 1936, Fortin joined the libertarian forces in Barcelona during the Spanish Revolution, with the International Group of the Durruti Column which retook Saragossa [Zaragoza] from Franco's fascist army. It was there that his partner Georgette was killed on October 17, 1936.
Felix Fortin continued his militant activities in France after the defeat in Spain.
Emma Goldman lectures on "Trades-Unionism & What It Should Be" & other issues in German & English before the International Workingmen's Association (IWA) & trade unions including the Brewers & Malters Union, the Painters & Decorators Union, & the Journeymen Tailors Union. Emma's presentation to the conservative Amalgamated Wood
Workers Union is the first to take place by an anarchist.
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Additional lectures — including "Religion," "Women's Emancipation," "Politics & Its Corrupting Influence on Man," "The
Origin of Evil," & "The Basis of Morality" — are delivered to the Friesinuge Gemeinde, several chapters of the Turner
Society, the Freethought Society, & the Women's Sick Benefit Society. Her lecture on "Sex Problems" is debated by many
of the Chicago comrades who feel the subject matter is inappropriate for public discussion.
Before leaving Chicago, Red Emma organizes a social science club so that the local comrades will continue to organize in her
absence.
Ramón Vila Capdevila was a C.N.T. [Confederacion Nacional del Trabajo] member, involved in the Figols insurrection in January 1932, & was arrested & imprisoned.
The police still wanted to get him afterwards &, on April 18, 1936, with his cousin Ramón Rivas Capdevila, he is the victim of two seditious police officers trying to apply "Ley de fugas" (assassinating them in a fictitious bid to escape arrest). During the resulting fracas, Ramón Rivas & one of the officers is killed & the other wounded.
Ramón Vila Capdevila is freed from prison on July 19, 1936 with the beginning of the revolution & joins the "Iron Column", then the "Column Tierra y Libertad" & finally is delegated to work at the power station in Figols.
In 1939, Vila takes refuge in France & is interned at the Argelès-sur-Mer camp. He escapes in 1940, but is captured in 1942, & interned in Perpignan.
When released from here he plays a very active role in the "Resistance"; on June 11, 1944, for example, he & 200 men seize a German armoured train near Périgueux. He was also a member of the "Batallón Libertad" (mainly Spanish anarchists) which gained the liberation of Royan & the Gironde estuary. "Captain Raymond" was decorated by the French state.
In the summer of 1944, the Nontrón penitentiary was assaulted by guerrilla forces & all the political prisoners rescued. Between the attacking detachments was "Raymond" — the Catalan Ramon Vila Capdevila.
Following the liberation of France, Vila slipped back into Spain to undertake guerrilla actions against the fascist Franco regime, & now was best known as "Caraquemada" in the Catalonia area, operating with the guerrillas from 1945-1963.
At age 55, Ramon Vila Capdevila was shot down & purposely left to die by the "Guardia Civil" on August 7, 1963, following a shootout near Balsareny.
"For me this document is especially poignant, since O'Sheel was my choice to supply the foreword for my soon-to-appear anti-McCarthy collection, Roll the Forbidden Drums! which the liberal William-Frederick Press had already set up in print but at the last moment decided was too great a risk. It was instead grabbed up by Cameron & Kahn, a new publishing house established when Angus Cameron lost his post at Little, Brown for protesting its rejection of Howard Fast's Spartacus.
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O'Sheel, however, died on April 2nd, a few hours before my letter of invitation arrived, & the introduction was undertaken by Alfred Kreymborg, who walked across Manhattan— from Charles Street to Tompkins Square— at the age of 70, to hand-deliver his essay.
Defiant as we remained against the repressiveness at home, O'Sheel & Kreymborg, like me, were increasingly disgusted with the narrowness of the cultural Left in the United States, & with the blatant double standard [end page 83] that demanded civil rights here while denying or even defending the deprival of civil rights in the "socialist" world. By 1954 I had withdrawn from all political allegiances & was on the verge of responding with bitter verses to that farewell letter in
which O'Sheel had exhorted me "to carry the fire forward."
Years later Xanadu published my "Disappointed Ghosts," which ends with the line: "Lift high what flame? Ash is in my hand." "
Ortiz participated in the July 19/20, 1936 Barcelona attack against the barracks. He directed the "Red & Black" column which won part of Aragon from the fascists, allowing the development of the libertarian communities.
A video cassette recalls the life of this little known anarchist: "Ortiz, General Without God Nor Master".
In 1923, Antonio Ortiz was part of the group "Los solidarios" with Buenaventura Durruti. Durruti formed his famed column of volunteers to take Saragossa [Zaragoza] from the fascists, while Ortiz directed the "Red & Black" column (the Ortiz Column) in Aragon.
Afterwards Ortiz went to France which interned him in camps in Algeria. He then joined then liberation army to free Lattre, fought in Africa, & took part in the freeing of Strasbourg during WWII.
Antonio Ortiz then moved to Venezuela. See also 12 September 1948
Two of Rexroth's greatest essays are about two of his greatest
contemporaries:
"Poetry, Regeneration, & D.H. Lawrence"
http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/lawrence.htm
"The Reality of Henry Miller"
http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/henrymiller.htm
A few years later Rexroth nuanced his appreciation of both writers with
some more critical second thoughts:
"D.H. Lawrence: The Other Face of the Coin"
http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/d.h.lawrence.htm
"Henry Miller: The Iconoclast as Everyman's Friend"
http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/henry-miller.htm
Other Rexroth essays just added to the BPS website:
"Ford Madox Ford"
http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/ford-madox-ford.htm
"Blaise Cendrars"
http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/cendrars.htm
"Richard Wright & the Persistence of Racism"
http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/richard-wright.htm
Rompapas founded the Rabelais Press, a New York radical publishing house that funded the "Revolutionary Almanac", a journal edited by the notorious anarchist, Hippolyte Havel.
Rabelais Press published Sanger's sex hygiene articles in book form with the titles What Every Mother Should Know & What Every Girl Should Know. And we know from the only surviving letter of Rompapas to Sanger (the Yeânnis letter) that he supported the "Social War", another anarchist publication edited by Havel & Robert Lee Warwick.
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In an interview with historian Paul Avrich, writer Manuel Komroff called Rompapas a tobacco importer (Anarchist Voices, 1995, p. 202). Several sources confirm that he frequented both the Ferrer Center & Mabel Dodge Luhan's salon. Dodge contended that after she rejected his overtures, "John Rompapas turned away from me then to Margaret Sanger, who was at the beginning of her birth control movement. He helped her a great deal." (Mabel Dodge Luhan, Movers & Shakers, 1985, pp. 65-66)
Source: http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/yeann3.htm (I can't find, in 2006, since the Sanger Project Papers site has reorganized).
Letter from Rompapas, see page 49: July? 1913 / From John Rompapas, The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger : The Woman Rebel, 1900-1928 (Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger) vol.1 (University of Illinois, 2002).
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1951 -- [April 4] Argentina: During this month, in Buenos-Aires, en-tête d'un numéro du mensuel "La Obra" (The Work).
"La Obra"
Founded in 1936, this journal ceases publication in 1952.
1904 --
[April 5] Argentina: "La Protesta" first appears today.
Successor to "La Protesta Humana"
(1897-1904, founded & directed by Gregorio Inglán), the daily newspaper "La Protesta") was edited early on by Alberto Ghiraldo, & despite the many repressive storms it faces over the years, this important anarchist paper weathers them into the 1930s[?].
Because of an article in "le droit social", Antoine Cyvoct was wrongly suspected of being the author of an attack against the restaurant at the Bellecour theatre in Lyon on October 22, 1882.
Cyvoct was also charged in the "Trial of the 66," (see the Daily Bleed for 28 January 1883) & sentenced, in absentia, to five years in prison (he had taken refuge in Switzerland & Belgium).
He was extradited to France in 1883 & tried for the Bellecour attack.
He was sentenced to death, despite the court's failure to prove he was responsible. His sentence was commuted to forced labor. Despite a massive campaign by the anarchists in 1895 to gain his release, Cyvoct was not amnestied until March 1898. This same year, Cyvoct was nominated for legislative elections, "To draw attention to the cases of the anarchists remaining in prison."
Cyvoct then worked in the bookstore business, & gave talks in the anarchist circles on living conditions in prisons.
1959 -- [April 5] See Cuban Anarchism: The History of a Movement by Frank Fernandez
Synopsis: Cuba's anarchist movement traces its heritage back further than any other anarchist movement in Latin America; & Cuba produced the only mass, well organized anarchist movement ever to appear in the Western Hemisphere (excepting that in Argentina). Cuban Anarchism traces that movement from its beginnings in 1865 through its role in resisting homegrown dictatorship & U.S. imperialism throughout the first half of the 20th century; its important role in resisting the Batista dictatorship; its opposition to Castro's betrayal of the Cuban Revolution; & its years in exile. The book concludes with a look at the failure of the Castro dictatorship & at the possibility of fulfilling the promise of the Cuban Revolution after the fall of Castro.
Jan 4 Castro appoints a "provisional government" without consulting with other anti-Batista groups. Armed Student Directorio seizes & refuses to evacuate the Presidential Palace & the university of Havana.
Jan 10 Habeas corpus suspended. Capital punishment decreed.
Feb 16 Castro appoints himself Premier.
April 5 Censorship of press, radio, television etc. begins. Strikes prohibited.
May 8 Castro government assumes unlimited power.
May 17 Agrarian Reform Law (National Institute of Agrarian Reform— INRA) passed. Law 43: "...the INRA will appoint administrators & the workers will accept all orders & decrees dictated by INRA..."
June 9 Resolution 6, gives Castro unlimited power to spend public funds without being accountable to anyone.
July 7 Article 25 of Fundamental Law further extends death penalty for "acts hostile to the regime."
June 3, 1960 Death Penalty decreed for misappropriation of funds.
October "...a strike is a counter-revolutionary act in a socialst republic..." (Castro).
"...The destiny of the unions is to disappear..." (Che Guevera).
"...the Minister of Labor can take control of any union or federation of unions, dismiss officials & appoint others..." (law 647)
From the Libertarian Association of Cuba to the International Anarchist Movement. Havana, June, 1959:
'The Communist Party of Cuba is just as dangerous for the revolution as are the extreme nationalists & upper echelons of the Church. Fortunately, their influence is limited because they are discredited by their association with Batista & their servility to the Russian totalitarian dictatorship. Hiding behind the banner of liberalism, patriotism, mutual tolerance & the coexistence of all anti-Batista forces, they have been able to infiltrate a number of organizations & some sectors of the labor movement. Though small in number, the Communists are skillful connivers, well-organized & totally unscrupulous; their counterrevolutionary potential must not be underestimated.'
From January 18, 1959, soon after the revolution, here is a Manifesto from the Libertarian Association of Cuba:
'We are alarmed that the allegedly "temporary" administrations of the unions & their officials are being installed without consultation or agreement of the membership or of the various organizations that made the Revolution... In the midst of the revolutionary turmoil, we do not expect everything, including the labor organizations, to function normally in so short a time. But it is our duty, & the duty of all workers, by militant action, to see to it that the democratic procedures, the freedoms, & the rights gained by us with the triumph of the Revolution are respected... '
1904 -- [April 6] John Turner's deportation; his arrest October 23, 1903 was the first test of the anti-anarchist immigration act: At an event at Murray Hill Lyceum, where Emma Goldman was to speak, Turner was arrested & charged with promoting anarchism & violating alien labor laws. He was "detained" on Ellis Island until his deportation, with the words "Let freedom ring" burning in his ears.
Said John Turner was arrested in the city of New York on or about October 23, 1903, under a warrant issued by the Secretary of the Department of Commerce & Labor of the United States, & was taken to the Ellis island immigration station, where he was examined by a board of special inquiry, duly constituted according to law, upon his right to remain in this country, & that said alien was, by said board, found to be an alien anarchist, & was, by unanimous decision of said board, ordered to be deported to the country from whence he came, as a person within the United States in violation of law.
That on October 26, 1903, said alien appealed from the said decision of the board of special inquiry to the Secretary of Commerce & Labor, who dismissed the appeal, & directed that said alien be deported to the country from whence he came, upon the ground that said alien is an anarchist [194 U.S. 279, 282] & a person who disbelieves in, & who is opposed to, all organized government, & was found to be in the United States in violation of law.
Argued April 6 & 7, 1904 before the US Supreme Court, in Turner v. Williams, 194 U.S. 279; Rules May 16, 1904 that Congress has unlimited power to exclude aliens & deport those who have entered in violation of the laws, including philosophical anarchists.
Scarcely a major city was without an anarchist or anarcho-syndicalist group, spreading a relatively large amount of printed matter — papers, periodicals, leaflets, pamphlets, & books. There were two weeklies in Petrograd & a daily in Moscow, each appearing in 25,000 copies.
Anarchist sympathizers increased as the Revolution deepened & then moved away from the masses.
At the end of 1918, according to Voline [the premier historian of the anarchists during the revolution, as well as an active participant in the events described— cf], "this influence became so great that the Bolsheviks, who could not accept criticism, still less opposition, became seriously disturbed."
Voline reports that for the Bolshevik authorities "it was equivalent... to suicide to tolerate anarchist propaganda. They did their best first to prevent, & then to forbid, any manifestation of libertarian ideas & finally suppressed them by brute force."
From Daniel Guérin's Anarchism (Monthly Review Press)
The trials of the nine boys began at Scottsboro before Judge E.G. Hawkins. Milo Moody was appointed by the court to serve as "defense counsel." Charlie Weems & Clarence Norris were declared "guilty" by the jury. The great crowd assembled before the courthouse, surrounded by state troopers, staged a demonstration of approval with the band playing, "There'll be a hot time in the old town tonight".
The others are found guilty over the next two days.
Langston Hughes, expecting fellow writers to speak out on the outrageous framing of the “Scottsboro Boys” in Alabama, wrote:
Surely, I said,
Now will the poets sing.
But they have raised no cry.
I wonder why.
Internationale Situationniste #7. Central bulletin published by the sections of the Situationist International. Editor: G.-E. Debord. Editorial committee (Central Council of the SI): Debord, Kotànyi, Lausen, Vaneigem.
April 1963
Der Deutsche Gedanke #1. Bulletin, in German, of the Situationist International for Central Europe, Brussels. Editor: Raoul Vaneigem.
11 to 13 April 1961 Third session of the SI's Central Council in Munich. Participants: Debord, Kotànyi, Nash, Sturm.
Exclusion of Maurice Wyckaert from the Belgian section, following an attempt to meddle in the SI's affairs by the art dealer Otto Van de Loo, who had hoped to influence its politics by making threats & promises to several situationists with whom he had personal relations.
In order to deal with his increasingly pervasive fame, the Central Council accepts the resignation of Asger Jorn from the French section. Jorn affirms his complete accord with the SI, demonstrating it in writing (he continues his participation in the SI under the pseudonym George Keller for around a year).
The Central Council, reduced to four members, decides not to meet again until the next SI conference, where it will be reorganized.
Musique phénoménale (Phenomenal Music), text by Asger Jorn accompanying the four albums of 'chaosmic music' written & recorded between December 1960 & February 1961 with Jean Dubuffet, Galleria del Cavallino, Venice.
12 April 1958 Address by the Situationist International to the General Assembly of the International Association of Art Critics, Meeting on 14 April 1958 at the World's Fair in Brussels, signed by A. Khatib, W. Korun, G.-E. Debord, H. Platschek, G. Pinot Gallizio & A. Jorn on behalf of the Algerian, Belgian, French, German, Italian & Scandinavian sections of the Situationist International.
On the back of the pamphlet: 'The classless society has found its artists. Long live the Situationist International!'
Judicial proceedings are initiated against Walter Korun for his role in the scandal.
15 April to 8 May 1959 'A meter of art for 40 to 70 marks,' slogan of Giuseppe Pinot Gallizio's first exhibition of industrial painting at Van de Loo Gallery, Munich.
17 to 20 1959 3rd SI conference in Munich. Participants: Armando, Constant, G.-E. Debord, Erwin Eisch, Heinz Höfl, Asger Jorn, Giors Melanotte, Har Oudejans, Giuseppe Pinot Gallizio, Heimrad Prem, Gretel Stadler, Helmut Sturm, Maurice Wyckaert, Hans-Peter Zimmer.
Foundation in Amsterdam of the Bureau for Invesigation for Unitary Urbanism. Director: Constant. Potlatch becomes a bulletin of internal liaison under the responsibility of the Dutch section.
Adoption of 'The Amsterdam declaration.'
The tract Ein Kultureller Putsch während Ihr schlaft! (A Cultural Putsch While You Sleep!), signed by Constant, Debord, Jorn, Pinot Gallizio, Wyckaert & Zimmer for the Dutch, French, Danish, Italian, Belgian & German sections, is distributed on the morning of the 21st with an invitation to Professor Bense's tape-recorded pseudo-press conference.
Tape recorded conference by the Dutch section at the Amsterdam Academy of Architecture.
April 1951 20 Guy-Ernest Debord meets the lettrists at the Cannes Film Festival, following the screening of Isou's Traité de bave et d'éternité (Treatise on Slime & Eternity).
APRIL 23 1952Ion #1, Paris, Editor: Marc-Gilbert Guillaumin, contains the scripts for The Anticoncept & an early version of Howls for Sade, as well as Guy-Ernest Debord's Prolégomènes à tout cinéma futur (Prolegomena to Any Future Cinema).
DOUBLE-CHECK THIS IS PART OF THIS ENTRY:
Fini le Cinéma français (No More French Cinema), tract distributed at the Cannes Film Festival, signed by Serge Berna, Guy-Ernest Debord, François Dufrêne, Monique Geoffrey, Jean-Isidore Isou, Yolande du Luart, Marc,O., Gabriel Pomerand, Poucette & Gil J. Wolman.
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1958 24 April to 31 May Exhibition by Jorn at the Institute of Contemporary Arts (ICA), London.
26 1958 'First Industrial Conference' in Alba, Italy. Lecture by tape recorder & in person by Debord & Pinot Gallizio from the Italian translation of Debord's Report on the Construction of Situations.
Also during this month Guy Debord is interviewed on Belgian radio, speaking at length on industrial painting.
Personally acquainted with many of America's radicals in the first half of the Twentieth century, Portland physician & suffragist, Dr. Marie Equi was arrested with birth control advocate Margaret Sanger in 1916, & was sentenced to San Quentin Prison for her anti-war views in 1920.
During her incarceration in San Quentin prison, Equi's personal correspondence was copied & read by agents of the United States Department of Justice. Copies of her letters can still be found to this day in her files which are now housed in the National Archives facility in College Park, Maryland. Of prime interest to the Department of Justice were efforts made by Equi's friends to secure a pardon on her behalf. J. Edgar Hoover who was then Assistant Director of the Bureau of Investigation, made mention of this to a superior in a letter dated April 29, 1921, noting also that Equi was "associated with Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, Anita Whitney & Emma Goldman ...and was a professional abortionist."
Dr. Marie Equi (1872-1952) is found guilty of sedition (as were countless others opposing American involvement in one of Europe's bloodiest wars) under a newly amended Espionage Act.
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The law "forbade criticism of the U.S. government, the constitution, the military, the flag, navy or uniform." At her trial, Special Agent William Bryon of the Dept. of Justice, called her "an anarchist, a degenerate, & an abortionist." At the end of the trial, the U.S. prosecutor, Barnett Goldstein, contemptuously referred to her as an "unsexed woman" in a thinly-veiled comment on her lesbianism.
She demanded an apology, protesting that "a man born in Russia should sit in judgement of an American born woman." During the next year & a half, her attorneys fought vainly to have her conviction overturned.
Mary Equi, a lesbian anarchist (known to investigators from the U.S. Dept of Justice (now the F.B.I.) who spied on Equi's personal life) & labor organizer, in her later years recalled how she & her mother were spat upon in the streets of Portland during this period. Her lesbian loves were known to investigators spying on her who became aware of her affair with Irish nationalist Kathleen O'Brennan & others.
In October 1920 she entered San Quentin prison to serve a three year term which was later commuted to a year & a half.
See Sandy Polishuk The Radicalization of Marie Equi, 1971, unpublished manuscript at the Oregon Historical Society.
1951 -- [April 7] Jim Bumpas (1943-1997) dies, Eugene, Oregon.
Sportsman, attorney, computer enthusiast, baseball & soccer coach, social critic & author. Publisher of the Social Revolutionary Anarchist Federation (SRAF) newsletter during the 1970s & 80s, Mountain View, California. IWW member.
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He was an avid simulated war games enthusiast & he designed a few games in the late 70s. See for example "Tatchanka - Ukraine, 1919-21" a strategic simulation of one of the last parts of the Russian Civil War, the three-year struggle in the Ukraine after World War I. It was designed in 1977 by Jim Bumpas.
"Tatchanka"
At the end of the game any Victory Points the Makhnovists have earned are counted for the White player.
This does not mean that they are against the revolution, just that any breathing space they win for their brand of regional anarchism
constitutes one in the eye for Bolshevik centralism. So, at some point the Red player will feel himself force to break this partnership in
order to get a decisive victory.
See also the magazine "Jagdpanther #12" - Flight of the Dreadnought: Scott Rusch (Scenario)
Merchant Raider: Jim Bumpas (Variant)
Campaign Dreadnought: Jim Bumpas (Variant)
Bumpas also won a Charles S. Roberts Award at Origins II in Baltimore, Maryland on July 23-25, 1976 for Best Amateur Game for "Schutztruppe"; also designed Mission Aloft
1877 -- [April 8] "Gang of Matese" Included Bianchini Cornacchia
Gathered at the village, the crowd listens to the words of Cafiero, perched on a cross where flies a large red & black flag.
Cafiero explains the principles of libertarian communism, the land deeds are burned, as well as the files of monarchy & the State. Matese, unfortunately, is soon besieged by 12,000 infantrymen, who capture almost all the internationalists.
The 26 accused are tried in 1878 & are all acquitted.
According to the report written by Angiolini, the 27, conducted by guides, led by Malatesta & Ceccarelli (35 years, merchant born at Savignano, died 1886 in Cairo), always conversing with Cafiero, feeding & sheltered in farms, between April 6 & 8 marched by the mountains of the Monte Matese Chain, by Pietrarvia, the Monte Mutri, Filetti & Buco to Letino, entering in silence, with the red flag & invading the municipal building where the council was sitting. But troops began to surround them & they got no support in the two localities mentioned, though the letter of 1877 tells of demands of peasants for bread & money ...
... show more
See Max Nettlau 's Errico Malatesta, The Biography of an Anarchist: A Condensed Sketch, (NY: Jewish Anarchist Federation, 1924), online at the Anarchy Archives.
In April 1877, Cafiero, Malatesta, Ceccarelli, the Russian Stepniak & 30 other comrades began an insurrection in the province of Benevento.
They took the village of Letino without a struggle where they were greeted with great enthusiasm. Arms & expropriated goods were distributed amongst the people, tax money was returned & official documents destroyed. Cafiero, in dialect, explained about anarchism, freedom, justice & the new society without the State, without masters, servants, soldiers & owners. His proclamations convinced even the parish priest who explained to his parishioners that the internationalists were 'the true apostles sent by the Lord'.
The following day the village of Gallo was taken in a similar fashion. Unfortunately, as they were leaving Gallo the Internationalists were surprised & surrounded by government troops & all were arrested.
Held in prison for over a year before being brought to trial all the accused were eventually acquitted in August 1878.
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1974 -- [April 8] Hammerin' Hank Aaron's 715th home run
Henry Aaron drives a 1-&-0 fastball from LA Dodgers' left-hander Al Downing over Atlanta Stadium's left-center-field fence, just to the right of the 385-foot marker. His 715th career home run, Aaron's hit breaks Babe Ruth's Major League record, which has stood for nearly 40 years.
Detractors have downplayed this inevitable event, often with racist overtones, saying the modern baseball is livelier than in Ruth's day & that Aaron has played more games. Aaron's defenders counter that modern hitters also must contend with more night games & the slider — a breaking pitch introduced after Ruth retired.
1977 -- [April 8] Argentina: Adriana Gatti "disappeared" by government security forces. She was previously kidnapped from her home on March 31 & taken to where Ricardo Carpentero (her fiance by whom she was about was 8-9 months pregnant) being held, but was set free the same day. Daughter of Gerardo Gatti, Uruguayan anarchist labor militant "disappeared" in 1976 by the Argentine government, tortured & put up for ransom before he died.
"disappeared"
According to press reports, between April 7 & 8, 1977, the house in which Gatti was-residing was attacked by Argentine Security forces, a shootout occurred, & the couple with whom Gatti was living was killed. About 7 months pregnant, Gatti was taken away wounded in ambulance, according to eye witnesses, & since that time family has heard nothing.
The case took on new interest when the couple who was killed, Eduardo Testa & Norman Ines Masuyuma, appeared in list of 76 bodies buried as NN in Chacarita cemetery in a list released December 1982.
Ricardo Carpintero seized by unknown people, somewhere in BA (per his mother) on March 25, 1977.
2001 -- [April 8] HERR RUDOLF GHOULIANI: Rudy Giuliani is the mayor who tried to turn the terroist attacks on Sept.11 into an extended stay in office, after having been voted out; he is also the same bozo who turned up in the media every 10 seconds like a clown, donning a NYC fireman's helmet for months afterwards.
To the endless ritmo
Of the junky-filled ambulancias.
Oh, Spanish Harlem!
Where jazz leaks up from
The sidewalks, where
Mayor Giuliani's fascist piggies
Dare not tread.
Where the law is a dime bag
& Santana is a god.
— Neal Pollack, excerpt from
"A S P O K E N - W O R D P O E M F O R A M E R I C A"
"Freedom is about authority. Freedom is about the willingness of every single human being to cede to lawful authority a great deal of discretion about what you do & how you do it."
— Mayor Giuliani, New York Newsday pg A3 4/20/98
“State authority must provide for peace & order, & peace & order in turn must conversely make possible the existence of state authority. Within these two poles all life must now revolve...Ideas of 'freedom,' mostly of a misunderstood nature, inject themselves into the state conceptions of these circles”.
After the failure of the February strikes, leaders are put on trial & new laws enacted against the workers' associations, the workers have reached the exploding point. The army occupies the city & bridges, & now troops fire into an unarmed crowd. The streets are immediately filled with barricades, with workers storming & taking the barracks of Bon-Pasteur, while others barricade themselves in the districts, some, like Croix Rousse, making fortified camps.
His best known character was Professor Augustus S.F.X. Van Dusen, the Thinking Machine, who was small, nearsighted, & had superior mental powers. His assistant was a clever newspaper reporter - a model of team work copied later in many mystery writers, among them Rex Stout.
Futrelle — & several of his stories — went down with the ship.
SEE: Titanic: Triumph & Tragedy by John P. Eaton & Charles A. Haas, 1995; The Titanic Disaster by Dave Bryceson, 1997; A Night to Remember by Walter Lord; Titanic: the Extraordinary Story of the Unsinkable Ship by Geoff Tibbals; Titanic: Destination Disaster by John P. Eaton & Charles A. Haas; Every Man for Himself by Beryl Bainbridge.
Literary coincidences: Morgan Robertson's novel The Wreck of the Titan, (1898), told a story of a ship sunk by ice. American poet Celia Thaxter described in 1874 a collision between a ship & an iceberg.
Journalist William Thomas Stead, a first class passenger on the Titanic, wrote in 1886 a fictional article for the Pall Mall Gazette, in which a ship collided with another ship. Great loss of life resulted because of too few lifeboats & an article for the Reviews of Reviews in 1892 depicting a journey from England to the US. During the voyage a liner rescues survivors from a ship sunk after a collision with ice. Stead himself died on the Titanic.
Bruxelles du premier numéro du journal anarchiste belge "L'Homme Libre" Organe de combat pour l'Emancipation des Travailleurs, publié par le groupe du même nom. D'abord hebdomadaire puis bimensuel durant l'année suivante, il cédera ensuite la place à "La Débacle."
1914 -- [April 11] "Explaining the term 'Anarchist-Communism'," appears in Min Sheng, No. 5, April 11, 1914, pp.1-5.
Another significant article seeking to define anarchist communism was written by Shih Fu in April, 1914.
Since both the terms "anarchism" & "communism" were new to the Chinese language, many misunderstandings had resulted, he stated.
Anarchism advocated the complete freedom of people, unrestrained by any controls, with all leaders & organs of power eliminated.
Later, Wu Chih-hui was to write:
"Since the death of Shih Fu, the Anarchist Party of China has been scattered & indifferent it seems as if Shih Fu's death from tuberculosis has caused the Chinese Anarchist Party to suffer also from this disease."
The death of Shih Fu removed a dynamic figure from the Chinese anarchist movement & certainly damaged it severely.
1900 -- [April 12] Famed labor song "Which Side Are You On?", by Florence Reece
About 1940, Pete Seeger, an "eager young college dropout wanting to learn union songs," learned the song from Tillman Cadle, a coal miner. In 1941 it was recorded by the Almanac Singers & made the song famous. It continues to be sung at gatherings for labor workers & many other social causes throughout the world.
Reece also wrote a book, Against the Current, of short stories & poems & the song "You Can't Live on Jellybeans," critical of Beloved & Respected comrade Leader Acting President Reagan after he made cuts in programs
for the poor & needy.
One writer notes, "Florence symbolizes that ordinary people out of their own life experiences can capture in simple words & feelings the idea of struggle".
They say in Harlan Co.
There are no neutrals there
You'll either be a Union man
Or a thug for J.H. Blair.
A satirical, humorous & naturalist newspaper produced by the Brestoin anarchist Herve Coatmeur. The newspaper appears on Saturdays, & is one of many titles published by Coatmeur & Foyer Naturien (Natural Hearth) de Brest.
Elle est née en 1862. Ouvrière dans le textile et militante anarchite, elle collabore à la revue "El Productor" (Le producteur). Dès 1905, elle revendique, dans une brochure, le droit à l'égalité des femmes dans la société, et la prise en mains par ces dernières de leurs propres destinées. Elle est, en compagnie de Soledad Gustavo (avec qui elle était très liée), une des pionnières de l'anarcho-syndicaliste féminin en Espagne, poussant Federico Urales à reprendre la parution de "La Revista Blanca".
Militante acharnée, Teresa est plusieurs fois arrêtée et interrogée par la police. Elle y subit de mauvais traitements pour avoir refusée de livrer les noms de ses compagnons anarchistes recherchés, et sera condamnée à 5 ans de prison. Son enterrement, le 14 avril fut l'occasion d'une grande manifestation anarchiste dans la ville de Barcelone.
Edited La mujer en la Lucha Social y en la Guerra Civil de España, de Lola Iturbe. (Editores Mexicanos Unidos, 1974).
1936 -- [April 12-13] France: The Union anarchiste or UA) convenes its Easter congress.
Union anarchiste
This tactic was confirmed as policy: the UA could not remain on the touch-line. Anarchists must ally themselves with the non-anarchist left & take part in the mass antifascist movement — albeit whilst trying to exert a revolutionary influence. It is no coincidence that it was at this conference that the FCL (Fédération communiste libertaire) rejoined the UA. Nor was it unconnected that the following August the opposite faction left the UA to found the FAF (Fédération anarchiste de langue française), condemning the UA for being centralised & centralist (dominated by a Parisian clique), authoritarian & too conciliatory towards the non-anarchist left. The Nîmes-based "Terre libre," which had existed since 1934, became the organ of the FAF in February 1937.
Note: The Union Anarchiste was created in 1920, the short-lived Fédération communiste révolutionnaire anarchiste (launched in 1913) having been destroyed by the 1914-18 war. As a result of the increasing marginalisation of individualism, the organization changed its name to Union anarchiste communiste in 1926, & a year later the word révolutionnaire was added under the influence of those — the ‘platformists’ — in favour of more cohesive organization, a more workerist emphasis & closer links with organised labour & with other sectors of the left.
1873 -- [April 13] US: Colfax Massacre. An orgy of brutality by the White League leaves more than 200 hundred African Americans dead in Grant Parish, Louisiana.
White League groups formed across the South during reconstruction to drive blacks out of the political arena. In Coahoma County, Mississippi, hundreds of armed whites roamed the countryside, hanging & shooting blacks.
Monroe Lewis was dragged from his bed, forced to say his prayers & shot. Charles Green was forced to cook for a party of a hundred whites, one of whom then shot him (quote) "to try his gun out."
President Ulysses Grant will refuse to intervene against the White Leagues. White newspapers like Georgia's Augusta Chronicle will warn African Americans (quote) "Let not your pride. . . flatter you into the belief that you ever can or ever will, for any length of time, govern the white men of the South."
1901 -- [April 13] French anarchist Clément Duval, with eight other prisoners, puts to sea in a fragile canoe & silently made for the open sea.
It was in the dead of night, & no guards noticed the escape until the next day. The convicts rowed with all their strength & in the morning raised a sail, avoiding territories under French jurisdiction. A warship came close without showing the slightest interest, & continued on its way. A good start. After 14 years in the Guyana prison, & over 20 escape attempts, Duval is successful, making it to NY where he lives to age 85.
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1905 -- [April 13] France: The French "Illegalist" newspaper "l'anarchie," first appears in Paris today, & every Thursday until the outbreak of WWI in 1914.
"L'anarchie" declared itself against resignation & conformity to the existing state of affairs.
It condemned vices (marriage, military service, work, drinking, voting, smoking tobacco & eating meat. It exalted l'endehors (outsiders) & the hors-la-loi (outlaws). A fund-raiser is carried in its pages to help Marie Berthou, the mother of the anarchist Alexandre Marius Jacob (a member of "Les travailleurs de la nuit" (Workers of the Night) gang, credited with 150 burglaries, he had just been sent, on March 22, to prison for life).
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1963 -- [April 13] Dick Higgins founds Something Else Press
In 1961 Higgins co-founded Fluxus with Maciunas & others when that same year Maciunas began his Fluxus press. Maciunas wanted to publish a series of anthologies of very new & avant-garde art based on La Monte Young's An Anthology, which Maciunas had designed & produced.
He proposed publishing an anthology of Higgins entire life's work. However, Higgins thought the publication would be too large for commercial publication. They agreed instead to include everything Higgins wrote, composed or invented between April 13, 1962 & April 13, 1963 (Thomas Jefferson's birthday).
Since Maciunas was taking too long, Higgins decided to publish the work himself. Thus, Higgins founded Something Else
Press in 1964. Its first publication was his Jefferson's Birthday/Postface, two books bound back to back.
Higgins also published the Something Else Newsletter, 1966-73 & operated the Something Else Gallery, 1966-69, which in 1966 showed the first exhibit of concrete poetry in the United States.
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1980 -- [April 13] José Ester Borrás, Spanish anarchist, active in the resistance in France & in the Mauthausen concentration camp, & co-founder of the Spanish Federation of Former Political prisoners & camp inmates (FEDIP).
José Ester Borrás was active in the anarchist youth & trade union movement, fought in the famous Colonna Tierra y Libertad during the Spanish Revolution of 1936, was arrested by the communists. He fled to France after the fall of the Spanish Republic, fought in the resistance against the Nazis, was arrested October 30, 1943 & tortured by the Gestapo & deported to the Mauthausen concentration camp.
Ester returned to France in 1945 & founded FEDIP (Federación Española de Deportados e Internados Políticos). Ester & FEDIP campaigned for political prisoners in Franco's Spain, but also for the Spanish antifascists who were deported to labor camps in the Soviet Union after the Civil War. These prisoners were released only in 1956.
Ester remained active until well into the 1970s. He died on April 13, 1980.
Dès juillet 1940, il participe à la création d'un réseau de résistance composé de militants libertaires espagnols, dirigé par l'anarchiste Francisco Ponzan Vidal (qui sera fusillé le 17 août 1944, par la gestapo, à Buzet-sur-Tarn). José Ester est chargé de faire passer clandestinement la frontière espagnole à de nombreux résistants ou candidats à l'évasion. En avril 1941, il est arrêté par la police de Vichy qui l'envoie au camp du Vernet dans l'Ariège, d'où il s'évadera à deux reprises, fin 1941 et 1942. Le groupe est demantelé à Toulouse, le 31 octobre 1943.
Torturé par la gestapo, il est déporté en mars 1944 à Mauthausen (Allemagne), où il participe (en tant que représentant de la C.N.T), au "Comité International de la Résistance". Après la libération, il prend part à la création de la "Fédération espagnole des déportés et internés politiques". A partir de 1953, il travaillera à l'O.F.P.R.A (Office français de protection des réfugiés et apatrides). Il est mort à Alès, le 13 avril 1980.
1845 -- [April 14] Louis Genet, French textile worker, member of the Vienna anarchist group "Les Indignés".
Louis Genet was at Louise Michel's side in the riot of May 1, 1882.
He was also a defendant in the "Trial of the 66" in Lyon (January 1883), & was sent to prison for 15 months &, because of his continuing militant activitism, was card-indexed by the gendarmerie as a "dangerous antimilitarist."
1901 -- [April 14] US: Emma Goldman begins a lecture tour (April-July) with a free-speech battle in Philadelphia where she is prevented from speaking before the Shirt Makers Union. Emma & the organizations sponsoring her talks, including the Single Tax Society, defy police orders; she speaks in public on at least two occasions.
Today Emma speaks at an event sponsored by the Social Science Club; other speakers include Voltairine de Cleyre.
Despite the Social Science Club's opposition to Emma's anarchist views, it passes a resolution protesting the violation of her right to free speech.
During this tour, Emma also speaks in Lynn, Mass., Boston, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, St. Louis, Chicago, & Spring Valley, Ill., on such topics as
"Anarchism & Trade Unionism," "The Causes of Vice," & "Cooperation a Factor in the Industrial Struggle."
The council movement in Turin of March-April 1920 originated among the highly concentrated proletariat of the Fiat factories. During August & September 1919 new elections for an “internal commission” (a sort of collaborationist factory committee set up by a collective convention in 1906 for the purpose of better integrating the workers) suddenly provided the opportunity, amid the social crisis that was then sweeping Italy, for a complete transformation of the role of these “commissioners.”
They began to federate among themselves as direct representatives of the workers. By October 30,000 workers were represented at an assembly of “executive committees of factory councils,” which resembled more an assembly of shop stewards (with one commissioner elected by each workshop) than an organization of councils in the strict sense. But the example nevertheless acted as a catalyst & the movement radicalized, supported by a fraction of the Socialist Party (including Gramsci) that was in the majority in Turin & by the Piedmont anarchists (see Pier Carlo Masini’s pamphlet, Anarchici e comunisti nel movimento dei Consigli a Torino).
While the councilist program was later approved by the Congress of the Italian Anarchist Union when it met at Bologna on July 1, the Socialist Party & the unions succeeded in sabotaging the strike by keeping it isolated: when Turin was besieged by 20,000 soldiers & police, the party newspaper Avanti refused to print the appeal of the Turin socialist section (see Masini, op. cit.). The strike, which would clearly have made possible a victorious insurrection in the whole country, was vanquished in April.
DURING the month of September, 1920, however, a widespread occupation of Italian factories by their workforces took place, which originated in the auto factories, steel mills & machine tool plants of the metal sector but spread out into many other industries — cotton mills & hosiery firms, lignite mines, tire factories, breweries & distilleries, & steamships & warehouses in the port towns.
By the middle of September nearly 600,000 workers were occupying & running their factories through their factory councils.
With the mass factory occupations in September 1920 a defining moment was reached. Things had gone so far that turning back was not a real option. As Errico Malatesta warned:
"If we do not carry on to the end, we will pay with tears of blood for the fear we now instill in the bourgeoisie".
But there was a loss of nerve, not among those occupying the factories, but among the leaders of the Socialist Party (PSI) & the CGL union. Instead of expanding the industrial struggle & linking it directly with the various community & rural struggles, they negotiated a deal & ordered their members back to work. & at the moment that the momentum was lost the rattled bourgeoisie were given their moment for revenge. The fascist squads were to be the instrument of that revenge.
Many anarchists, including some of Emma Goldman's closest associates, are enthusiastic about the prospects for anarchism there, while Goldman remains skeptical.
During this month, Francisco Ascaso & Buenaventura Durruti returned to Spain. On arrival they found that certain 'leaders' of the CNT had become increasingly reformist during the period of the Dictatorship, whilst the FAI & most of the rank-&-file members & activists of the CNT remained true to their anarchist principles.
In the municipal elections of April 12th, 1931, it became clear that in all the large towns of Spain the candidates who supported the Monarchy had been heavily defeated.
The size of the Republican's vote in cities such as Madrid & Barcelona was enormous. In the country districts the Monarchy gained enough seats to secure for them a majority in the nation as a whole. By the evening of the day following the elections, great crowds were gathering in the streets of Madrid.
The king's most trusted friends advised him to leave the capital without delay, to prevent bloodshed. As a result, Alfonso XIII left Spain & the Second Republic was established in April 14th.
With the fall of the Spanish monarchy in April 1931, Ascaso & Durruti returned to Spain. On arrival they found that certain 'leaders' of the CNT had become increasingly reformist during the period of the Dictatorship, whilst the FAI & most of the rank-&-file members & activists of the CNT remained true to their anarchist principles.
In May, a motley collection of liberal-republicans, radicals & 'socialists' were returned to Parliament (the Cortes) in what has been described as the fairest election in Spain's history. Àngel Pestaña, a leading reformist, argued that the CNT should support the Republican Government. Buenaventura Durruti opposed him, & Durruti, the FAI & the majority of the CNT were soon proved correct.
1889 -- [April 15] Louis Bertho lives (known as Jules Lepetit), Nantes. French anarchist/syndicalist, reported missing after a trip to Moscow.
A shipyard worker in Saint-Nazaire, he took a false identity to escape military service. In 1912 he joined the Anarchist Communist Federation in Paris, & the Syndicat des Terrassiers. Exempted from the war for health reasons, on June 19, 1917 he was sent to prison for two years for clandestinely publishing the paper "Libertaire." Bertho, as a trade union activist, was invited to the Second Congress of the Communist International in Moscow, in July 1920, along with R. Lefebvre & Vergeat. After having met Victor Serge & visiting the Ukraine they disappeared, probably eliminated by the Communists.
1947 -- [April 15] US: French freighter Grandcamp docks at Texas City, Texass (today or 4/16?) & took on 1,400 tons of ammonium nitrate fertilizer.
Tonight a fire broke out in the hold, a ball of fire engulfed the ship, & a nearby Monsanto chemical plant exploded, killing & maiming hundreds of workers & spectators. Most of the business district was devastated, & fires raged along the waterfront, where huge tanks of butane gas stood imperiled.
Shortly after midnight, a second freighter, also carrying nitrates, exploded, & the whole sequence began again. At least 468 people died, & another 1,000 were seriously injured in the disaster. The probable cause of the initial blast was careless smoking aboard the Grandcamp.
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1960 -- [April 15] US: Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), one of the main organizations of the civil rights movement, forms. In the late 60s it becomes a black militant organization & far from non-violent in position. Nearly 150 students from nine states met in North Carolina with Ella Baker, James Lawson & Martin Luther King, Jr. By this time, in mid April, over 50,000 students have participated in sit-ins.
SNCC [snick], is founded at Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina. One of SNCC's most profound influences was Ella Baker, an older woman who directs Martin Luther King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference.
Baker lost her conference job after relentlessly prodding King to be more aggressive. Saying racism is rooted in economic disparities, Baker has little use for a group that tries to inspire whites to reach a higher level of morality. As King distances himself from her, SNCC will rely on Baker's experience & strategies.
On Ella Baker, a libertarian socialist, was a SNCC advisor (along with Howard Zinn). See Chris Crass' article on Baker & anarchist organizing, http://colours.mahost.org/articles/crass8.html
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1854 -- [April 16] Laurent Tailhade
Laurent Tailhade's first poems were published in 1880, but he was best known for his polemical writings, as he moved from anticlericalism to anarchism.
His aesthetics & a provocative defense of Auguste Vaillant's attack in 1893 earned him the enmity of the middle class press & their mocking when he lost an eye during the anarchist bombing of the Foyot restaurant (where he happened to be by chance.) Tailhade was involved in the support of Dreyfus, & wrote for "Libertaire," & on October 10, 1901, following an article appearing in this journal during the Tsar's visit to France, he was sent to prison for a year.
In 1905, following a serious misunderstanding, he broke with the anarchists & former friends, putting himself in the service of nationalist jingoism.
Pages choisies. Vers et proses. Albert Messein, Paris 1912. 2ème édition. In-12° broché, 311 pp.
Lettres familières. Nouvelle série. Librairie Ollendorf, Paris, sans date. In-12° broché, 194 pp.
Petits mémoires de la vie Editions G. Crès et Cie, " Mémoires d'Ecrivains et d'Artistes " Paris 1922. In-12° broché, 268 pp.
1920 -- [April 16] Deportation of Ferruccio Coacci, an Italian anarchist
Ferruccio Coacci, who was to be in East Boston to be deported yesterday, tells Bureau of Immigration Inspector O. L. Root that he did not report as scheduled because his wife was sick & he needed a few days to take care of her.
Suspicious, Root asks Michael E. Stewart, Bridgewater chief of police, to look into Coacci’s story. Stewart had patrolman Frank LeBaron accompany Root to talk to Coacci. When they arrive at Coacci’s, they find Coacci’s wife in fine health & Coacci packing a suitcase & insisting on leaving immediately.
He was taken to the immigration station & left for Italy two days later....Stewart will later conclude that both of the South Braintree hold-ups done by the same group of Italians, Coacci being one of them.
On April 17, the car used by the South Braintree bandits, a stolen Buick, is discovered two miles from Coacci & Mario Buda’s (aka Mike Boda) home.
April 20, 1920 Stewart goes to Coacci’s former home & talks to Buda. Buda claims he is a salesman & that his car is being repaired at the Elm Square Garage.
April 22, 1920 Stewart talks to Simon Johnson, owner of the Elm Square Garage, & sets a trap for Buda by instructing Johnson to call him when anyone comes for the car.
Within a year of Jessup's call for deporting some 7,000 indigent Filipinos, Congress responds to such exclusionist demands by passing the Repatriation Act. The law offers Filipinos transportation to the Philippines at federal expense if they forfeit their right to re-enter the US.
Originally allowed into the US as cheap labor, Filipino farm workers are no longer needed because of Mexican labor & no longer wanted because of their union militancy. But the law repatriates fewer than 2,200 Filipinos.
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1912 -- [April 17] Kropotkin & the Lena gold mines in Siberia...
Kropotkin had visited the Lena gold mines early in his life, & indeed his experiences there when two revolts occurred, caused him to quit the military...
1866: In this year, Peter finally realized that he had to leave the military. This decision stemmed from two events. The first took place when Peter visited the Lena gold mines on an expedition. The conditions here were even worse than those that Peter had experienced in other towns in the Amur region were. A series of letters to his brother conveys Peter's shock at the manner in which workers were treated. He suggested that the only way to remedy the situation would be to drastically alter the existing economic system.
The second event occurred in June. A group of Polish exiles staged an uprising with the hope of escaping to China. The Siberian administration quickly took care of the situation by sending in the army. The army restored order, & the five leaders of the uprising were shot. Given, the conditions that he had just witnessed at the Lena gold mines, Peter understood why the Poles would want to escape. Furthermore, he could not justify to himself the use of the army when the revolt posed no real threat to anybody. In the next few months Peter immersed himself in reading, studying works by J.S. Mill, Renan, Heine, Herzen, & Proudhon.
1912 -- [April 18] West Virginia coal miners strike
BACKGROUND:
Paint Creek-Cabin Creek miners strike to gain recognition of the United Mine Workers of America.
UMWA miners on Paint Creek in Kanawha County demanded wages equal to those of other area mines. The operators rejected the wage increase & miners walked off the job today, beginning one of the most violent strikes in the nation's history. Miners along nearby Cabin Creek, having previously lost their union, joined the Paint Creek strikers.
The Kanawha Valley miners go on strike.
The Kanawha Valley miners had been organized during a 1902 strike with the assistance of Mother Jones, but in the intervening years the union had been driven out of Cabin Creek.
On April 1, 1912, the contract for the union Kanawha miners expired, & they tried to negotiate a new contract to improve their working conditions. Their demands were rejected & union miners throughout the Kanawha district went on strike on April 18th; eventually all the demands were met, except those of the Paint Creek miners who wanted wages equal to those paid in other area mines. Rejecting this, the Paint Creek operators instead began hiring guards from the Baldwin-Felts Detective Agency to intimidate, harass, & even physically assault miners & their families.
As large contingents of these hired gunmen began to arrive in May, & violence betwen miners & guards became a daily occurrence.
On three separate occasions, Governor Glasscock declares martial law & sends in troops. Martial law was imposed until January 1913.
Mother Jones attracted the country's attention in 1912-13, during the Paint Creek-Cabin Creek strike in West Virginia; the strike's frequent violence brought the publicity. On February 12, 1913, she was arrested after leading a protest over living conditions for the striking miners.
At the age of 83, Mother Jones was convicted by a military court of conspiring to commit murder & was sentenced to 20 years in prison. The event created such a furor that the U.S. Senate form a committee to look into conditions in the West Virginia coalfields. In 1913, newly elected West Virginia governor Dr. Henry Hatfield freed Mother Jones. As a medical doctor, Hatfield had previously treat Mother jones for pneumonia.
Known as the Paint Creek-Cabin Creek strike it involved the first use in the mine wars of an armored train known as the "Bull Moose Special."
At a tent colony known as Holley Grove the Sheriff of Kanawha County along with a number of Baldwin-Felts men machine-gunned the miners encampment by surprise catching many women & children unawares. The Sheriff is quoted as saying something to the effect of "boy that was fun, back her up boys & let's let `em have it again!"
God, if You had but the moon Stuck in Your cap for a lamp, Even You'd tire of it soon, Down in the dark & the damp.
Nothing but blackness above
& nothing that moves but the cars. . . .
God, if You wish for our love,
Fling us a handful of stars.
— Louis Untermeyer
excerpt from Caliban in the Coal Minesfrom Challenge, 1914
(Untermyer's poem is based on the the historical character of "Few Clothes" Johnson, the character played by James Earle Jones in Sayles' film Matewan.)
1913 -- [April 18] Paint Creek-Cabin Creek one year later...
BACKGROUND:
...the miners had been on strike for more than a year; they had endured a cold winter in tents & on meager rations. They had suffered humiliation, brutality & death at the hands of the Baldwin-Felts mine guards. They had been machined gunned by an armor plated train, illegally court martialed & illegally imprisoned by Governor H. D. Hatfield.
When the miners were on the verge of winning this monumental labor dispute, Governor Hatfield muscled his way in, ordered them to abandon the strike & dictated the conditions under which they would return to work. Miners who opposed these dictates were, under the governor's orders, illegally deported from the state.
Two labor newspapers that opposed the governor's dictates were, under the governor's orders, illegally suppressed as the militia destroyed their presses & arrested & imprisoned their editors.
The local UMWA officials who were supposed to be representing the best interests of the miners were working in cahoots with the governor to break the strike.
Eugene V. Debs came into West Virginia & reported that the governor was doing a good job! Fagge maintains that Debs did a good job! I am confused!
This alone constituted a "betrayal" of the cause & interests of the rank & file miners! But Debs did not let it stop there.
In a fruitless effort to defend his report, Debs lied about the contents of the report.
1930 -- [April 18] Barbecue Bob, "We Sure Got Hard Times Now"
Employed at Tidwell's Barbecue Place in Atlanta, Robert Hicks recorded extensively as Barbecue Bob & with the Georgia Cotton Pickers. He was among the most distinctive exponents of the 'Atlanta 12-string' school of guitarists, until his untimely death from pneumonia at age 29 in 1931. "Hard Times" were on the minds of many black Atlantans: Bob's friend, Buddy Moss, waxed a "Hard Times Blues" in 1933, & the popular preacher Rev. J.M. Gates cut "These Hard Times" as a sermon in 1930.
TExt source: The Great Depression: Music from the era (unfortunately no longer online)
(Sunday) April 18, 1937: Friends of Durruti hold a rally in the Poliorama Theater. Chaired by Romero, it hears contributions from Francisco Pellicer, Pablo Ruiz, Jaime Balius, Francisco Carreño & V. Pérez Combina.
Friends of Durruti has been organised within the CNT. Although it has a legal status it is being sabotaged by the leadership of the CNT because its policy is far to the left of the reformist top.
Source: Anarchist chronology, Friends of Durruti Group 1937-39, by Agustin Guillamón (AK Press)
The Friends of Durruti rally is held to bring its existence & its program to the attention of the public. Jaime Balius, Pablo Ruiz (delegate from the Gelsa Group), Francisco Pellicer (delegate from the Iron Column) & Francisco Carreño (member of the Durruti Column's War Committee) all spoke. The meeting was a great success & the ideas as set out by the speakers were roundly applauded.
This meeting to introduce the Group was reported in detail by Rosalio Negrete [Pen name of Russell Blackwell, who later became an anarchist] & Hugo Oehler in a report written & date-lined in Barcelona the same day. That report was first published in "Fourth International" Volume 2, No. 12, (1937). See Revolutionary History Volume 1, No. 2, (1988), London, pp. 34-35.
The meeting was called by means of handbills announcing that Francisco Pellicer would speak on the problelm of subsistence, Pablo Ruiz on the revolutionary army, Jaime Balius on the war & the revolution, Francisco Carreño on trade union unity & political collaboration, & V. Perez Combina on public order & the present time.
The following notice was carried in the daily newspaper "La Noche" (19 April 1937) about the progress of the meeting:
Yesterday morning, in the Poliorama Theatre, a meeting was held by the Friends of Durruti Group. There was a considerable attendance & the meeting was chaired by comrade Romero, who, after a few short remarks outlining the meaning of the meeting, called upon Francisco Pellicer, who opened with a recollection of Durruti.
Next, attention turned to the problem of subsistence, & he stated that it was impossible to eat on current rates of pay [. . .] Pablo Ruiz spoke on the revolutionary army [. . .] Then Jaime Balius read some jottings [. . .] in which he reviewed the initial fighting against fascism on July 19 [. . .] He stated that the Revolution should go hand in hand with the war & that both have to be won. [. . .] Francisco Carreño spoke last on the topic 'trade union unity & political collaboration' [. . .] He, like the rest of the speakers, was very warmly applauded.
Today at 6 a.m., a contingent of 2,000 heavily armed Schutzstaffel troops with tanks enter the ghetto. While the civilian population hides in underground bunkers, the ghetto fighters attack the Germans with incendiary bottles & a few guns. Shocked by the Jewish resistance, the SS is forced to withdraw. Unable to put down the revolt with conventional weapons, the Germans resort to setting the ghetto on fire.
On May 8th, the Germans surround the ghetto's underground military headquarters. More than a 100 Jewish fighters inside commit suicide rather than be taken alive.
On May 10th, some 75 survivors escape through the city's sewers.
Nolden was rounded up along with 50 anarcho-syndicalists from Duisburg, Dusseldorf & Cologne by the political police in early 1937. A little later, further arrests were made & these brought the number of members of the outlawed FAUD in Gestapo clutches to 89. These male & female comrades were charged with "preparing acts of high treason"& were tried in January & February of 1938.
All but six were convicted & sent to prison. Nolden was committed to the Luttringhausen prison & remained there until the arrival of the Allies on 19 April 1945.
Julius Nolden, a car plant worker from Duisburg was sentenced by a "The People's Court" in Berlin to a 10 year prison term. Nolden had been at the head of the FAUD (anarcho-syndicalist Free Union of German Workers) in the Rhineland when that underground organization was dismantled by the Gestapo in January 1937.
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In 1921 the FAUD in Duisburg had around 5000 members. After then the numbers fell & by the time Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, only a few tiny groups remained. For example, there were about 25 militants active in the Duisburg area & the Rhineland regional union had around 180-200 dues-paying members.
In April-May 1933, Dr. Gerhardt Wartenburg, before being obliged to flee the country, managed to find a replacement for himself as secretary of the FAUD in the person of Emil Zehner, an Erfurt blacksmith. Wartenburg fled to Holland, to Amsterdam, where he was welcomed along with other German émigrés, by the Dutch anarcho-syndicalist, Albert de Jong* Similarly, the IWA (the International Workers' Association embracing trade unions of a libertarian & revolutionary bent) secretariat was moved to the Netherlands but that did not prevent the organization's archives from falling into the hands of the Nazis.
In autumn 1933, Emil Zehner was replaced by Ferdinand Gotze, a member of the Saxony Chamber of Labour, then run by Richard Thiede from Leipzig. Meanwhile in the autumn of 1934 Gotze, on the run from the Gestapo, turned up again in the west of Germany where support fro. the Dutch federation of the IWA (the NSV) had made it possible to establish an underground FAUD group. At the same time & in all haste an FAUD secretariat in exile had been set up in Amsterdam.
DUISBURG, THE LIAISON & AGITATION CENTRE FOR THE WEST OF GERMANY
Up until the Nazis took power, labourer Franz Bunged had headed the Duisburg federation. He was interned in the Bogermoor concentration camp without any semblance of a trial in 1933. Bungert was released within a year but found it absolutely impossible to engage in even the least illegal activity because of the strict surveillance under which he was kept His place was taken by Julius Nolden, a Steelworker unemployed at the time. Up to that point, Nolden had been treasurer of the Rhineland Chamber of Labour. Nolden too was arrested by the Gestapo who suspected that his job with an incineration plant was a cover for illegal contacts with other FAUD members.
In June 1933, a little after he was released, Nolden met Karolus Heber, a member of the underground Erfurt directorate, The Object of their meeting was to organise the clandestine escape of compromised colleagues to Holland & to launch a resistance organization in the Rhineland & Rhur districts, Nolden & his colleagues laid the groundwork for a network to smuggle people out to Amsterdam & distributed antifascist propaganda. It transpires from the court records that anti-Nazi pamphlets circulating at the time under cover of the title "Eat German fruit & stay healthy', were so popular among miners that they used to greet each other with: "Have you eaten German fruit as well?"
After 1935 & the improving economic position inside the country, it was increasingly difficult to keep an illegal anarcho-syndicalist organization afloat.
Many comrades had found work again after years of unemployment & casual labour & were reluctant to involve themselves in active resistance. The Gestapo terror did the rest. Furthermore, the support from Amsterdam dried up in 1935.
The outbreak of the Spanish Revolution in 1936 gave a boost to anarcho-syndicalist activity inside Germany. Nolden built up his contacts with Duisburg, Dusseldorf & Cologne, organised meetings & launched subscriptions to raise financial support for the Spanish comrades. At the same time, Simon Wehre, from Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), used the Rhineland Chamber of Labour's network to recruit volunteer technicians prepared to go to Spain. In December 1936, the Gestapo, thanks to a spy planted within, managed to uncover the existence of groups in the cities of Munchengladbach, Dulken & Viersen. Then the arrests at the beginning of 1937 by the political police began.
KILLING OF MILITANTS
Several comrades were murdered in prison. The Duisburg lathe-operator, Emil Mahnert, according to the testimony of four other inmates, was hurled form two storeys up by a police torturer. The bricklayer, Wilhelm Schmitz died in prison on 29 January 1944 & the circumstances of his death have never been properly clarified.
Ernst Holtznagel was dispatched to the notorious 999 punishment battalion, where he was killed. Michael Delissen from Munchengladbach was beaten to death by the Gestapo in December 1936. Anton Rosinke from Dusseldorf was murdered in February 1937.
In August 1946, the Dusseldorf anarcho-syndicalist Ernst Binder wrote:
"Since mass resistance was not feasible in 1933, the finest members of the movement had to squander their energy in a hopeless guerrilla campaign. But if workers will draw from that painful experiment the lesson that only a united defence at the proper time is effective in the struggle against fascism, their sacrifices will not have been in vain."
[Trans: PS]
Source: Umanita Nova, 1 julio de 1990, tomado de Direkt Aktion (FAUD).
The Cleveland Leader, echoing the sentiments of much of the US press, wrote,
"The charred bodies of two dozen women & children show that Rockefeller knows how to win!"
John D. Rockefeller's company "guards" machine-gun & set fire to a union tent camp during a strike at Colorado's Ludlow Mine Field. In all, 26 people die in what is known as the Ludlow Massacre.
The attack starts today after a miner & company guard get into a fight. When strike leader Lou Tikas approaches the company gunmen for a cease fire, he's shot dead. Tomorrow a telephone lineman going through the ruins finds a shallow pit beneath a cot with the charred remains of two women & 11 children.
After burying their dead, armed miners take to the hills & begin destroying mines & killing guards. The Colorado governor will ask for federal troops &, a few months after the army arrives, the strike is broken.
Ludlow Massacre Monument Junction of Del Aqua & Colorado & Southern Railroad tracks
Ludlow
Marks the site where striking miners & their families were killed in their tent colony on April 20, 1914.
US: Emma Goldman, on trial for presenting a lecture on birth control at the New Star Casino on April 8th, defends herself & is convicted. Refusing to paying a $100 fine, she serves 15 days in the Workhouse at Queens County Penitentiary. She is released May 4.
anarchist feminist
According to the NY Times (April 21, 1916) she was applauded by several hundred sympathizers as she was led from the courtroom where a squad of officer friendlies was posted.
"Hundreds came as to [a] play with Emma Goldman in the leading role. Among the spectators were Mrs. J. Sergeant Cram, George Bellows, Mr. & Mrs. Robert Henri, Rose Pastor Stokes, Leonard Abbott, Mrs. John Sloan & Ben Reitman."
1916 -- US: [April 20] "The Most Dangerous Woman in the World," Emma Goldman is arrested for telling an audience how to use contraceptives; chooses 15 days in jail over $100 fine. ... show more
[— BleedMeister's note: This information & date [cited as March 28, 1915 in the Emma Goldman Papers Chronology] appear incorrect, happening later; this information is confused with another talk by Goldman, also cited in the Goldman Chronology at the Emma Goldman Papers Project:
March 28 Emma Goldman lectures again on "Limitation of Offspring— Why & How Small Families are Preferable" in New York. Although explicit information is repeated & detectives are present, no arrests are made.
The EG Papers Project also gives April 5 as the date of a hearing on these charges, but according the NYT the talk was was not presented until the 8th:
The NY Times reports the trial as being on April 20, 1916 for presenting a lecture on birth control at the New Star Casino on April 8th, when she defends herself & is convicted. Refusing to paying a $100 fine, she serves 15 days in the Workhouse at Queens County Penitentiary. She is released May 4.
According to the NY Times (April 21, 1916; from a newspaper clipping reproduced in the pamphlet The Traffic in Women & Other Essays) she was applauded by several hundred sympathizers as she was led from the courtroom where a squad of officer friendlies was posted.]
When Emma began speaking publicly on homosexuality & on how to practice birth control, the authorities could no longer tolerate her. She, Margaret Sanger, & others had been lecturing about birth control generally for years. But general talk was one thing & telling how to do it was quite another. The latter was a crime.
On March 28, 1915, addressing a mixed audience of 600 people in New York's popular Sunrise Club, Emma publicly explained for the first time anywhere in America how to use a contraceptive. . . When she chose jail the entire courtroom cheered her. Margaret Anderson of "The Little Review" observed,
"Emma Goldman was sent to prison for advocating that women need not always keep their mouths shut & their wombs open."
1927 -- [April 20] International conference at Hay-les-Roses
NESTER MAKHNO & Peter Arshinov with other exiled Russian & Ukrainian anarchists in Paris, launched the excellent bimonthly "Dielo Trouda" (Workers' Cause) in 1925. It was an anarchist communist theoretical review of a high quality. Years before, when they had both been imprisoned in the Butirky prison in Moscow, they had hatched the idea of such a review. Now it was to be put into practice. Makhno wrote an article for nearly every issue during the course of three years.
In 1926 the Dielo Trouda Group was joined by Ida Mett (author of the expose of Bolshevism, The Kronstadt Commune), who had recently fled from Russia. That year also saw the publication of their 'Organisational Platform'.
The publication of the 'Platform' was met with ferocity & indignation by many in the international anarchist movement.
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First to attack it was the Russian anarchist Voline, now also in France, & founder with Sébastien Faure of the 'Synthesis' which sought to justify a mish-mash of anarchist-communism, anarcho-syndicalism & individualist anarchism. Together with Molly Steimer, Senya Fleshin, & others, he wrote a reply stating that to "maintain that anarchism is only a theory of classes is to limit it to a single viewpoint".
Not to be deterred, the Dielo Trouda Group issued, on 5 February 1927, an invitation to an 'international conference' before which a preliminary meeting was to be held on the 12th of the same month. Present at this meeting, apart from the Dielo Trouda Group, was a delegate from the French Anarchist Youth, Odeon; a Bulgarian, Pavel, in an individual capacity; a delegate of the Polish anarchist group, Ranko, & another Pole in an individual capacity; several Spanish militants, among them Orobon Fernandez, Carbo, & Gibanel; an Italian, Ugo Fedeli; a Chinese, Chen; & a Frenchman, Dauphlin-Meunier; all in individual capacities. This first meeting was held in the small backroom of a Parisian cafe.
A provisional Commission was set up, composed of Makhno, Chen & Ranko. A circular was sent out to all anarchist groups on 22 February. An international conference was called & took place on 20 April 1927, at Hay-les-Roses near Paris, in the cinema Les Roses.
As well as those who attended the first meeting was one Italian delegate who supported the 'Platform', Bifolchi, & another Italian delegation from the magazine "Pensiero e Volonta", Luigi Fabbri, Camillo Berneri, & Ugo Fedeli. The French had two delegations, one of Odeon, favourable to the 'Platform' & another with Severin Ferandel.
1999 -- [April 20] US: Second Columbine Massacre. You probably never of the first one (1927). & though the media claims this to be the biggest American school massacre ever, it was not (the worst was also in 1927).
I may be the only parent of a Columbine High School student who isn't howling for more gun control laws.
I may also be the only Columbine parent who hasn't attended church to thank "god" that my daughter is still alive.
& with respect to the police, the events this past spring have convinced me more than ever that the cops, being inept & useless parasites at their very best, are not only incapable of preventing crimes of this nature, but only contribute thereafter to the anguish & suffering of victims.
— Parent Paul Roasberry, COLUMBINE, CHRISTIANS & COPS
(from The Match!, edited by Fred Woodworth)
Many media (eg, Reuters, UPI) erroneously call this the biggest school massacre, but it was not; On May 18, 1927, 45 people were killed, including 38 elementary students, by a series of dynamite explosions at the Bath Michigan School detonated by Andrew Kehoe, a school board member.
The Columbine Massacre you never hear about was November 21, 1927, when IWW picketing miners were brutally massacred.
Columbine Massacre Monument
Lafayette Northern Colorado Mine Workers Historical Marker, a sign on Highway 7 leading to Lafayette, marks the Columbine Massacre where miners were killed while on picket duty during a 1927 strike.
1898 -- [April 21-27th] Italy: Show trial in Ancône, of anarchists accused of criminal conspiracy against "the public safety of people & property"
This trial follows the failure of a General Strike in mid-January against price increases for bread.
The defendants are represented by the anarchist lawyers Francisco Saviero Merlino, Pietro Gori & Errico Ferri.
The trial ends on the 27th, & among the defendants Errico Malatesta is sent to prison for seven months.
When the trial was just concluding, bread riots are set off (April 27, 28) at Bari & Foggia — a desperate echo of Leiter's corner in wheat at Chicago — events which inspired the late Frank Norris' unfinished Epic of the Wheat — & spread north & south, reaching Milan in May. The South of Spain, around Murcia, was also on fire (burning of the octrois).
The repression following these acts of despair of starving people affected Malatesta who, instead of being liberated August 17 (at the end of seven months),
remained in prison & was transported to the islands, first to Ustica, then to Lampedusa.
When some socialists & republicans proposed to nominate him as a candidate at local elections, he refused (letter published in the "Avanti," Rome, January 21,
1899); he did the same when Merlino, writing to the "Italia nuova," Rome, May 22, 1900, appealed to the anarchists to send Malatesta to the chamber of deputies as their spokesman & to obtain in this way, as he imagined, political elbow room.
"I consider as an unmerited outrage the simple supposition that I might wish to enter the parliamentary career."
Malatesta preferred to make his escape from the island of Lampedusa, proceeding with three others during a tempest in a bark to Malta & thence to London (May, 1899).
Benjamin Tucker noted the contrast between the will of the banker J. Peirpont Morgan & the last letter of Antoine Monier-Simentoff, one of the Bonnot Gang of "anarchist-illegalists" guillotined in 1913:
"One need not be an advocate of 'individual resumption,' of 'propaganda by deed,' or even of 'direct action,' in order to prefer the petty bandit who, having a social ideal, seeks to further it by an isolated act of violence, though knowing thereby he bares his neck to the knife, to the giant bandit who, believing in society as it is, & having no ideal but his own aggrandizement, realizes it by forging & wielding the mighty weapon of legal monopoly to despoil a whole people of their products & their liberties, & who, wolfish devourer of the flock, continues, even after his death, to bathe in the Blood of the Lamb."
— Benjamin Tucker, in Dora Marsden's paper "The New Freewoman."
1937 -- [April 21] Espert poster published by Delegated Committee for the Defense of Madrid
This poster was released in Madrid, most likely between November 31, 1936, when the issuing entity, the Delegated Committee for the Defense of Madrid, was instituted, & when it was dissolved today.
This soldier appears distinguished & proud of his literacy. This type of depiction was characteristic of Espert, the artist
who designed this poster. Espert tried to convey the notion learned or cultured soldiers are not only smarter, but better soldiers. Espert worked with Izquierda Republicana, & with the Committee for the Defense of Madrid.
While most propaganda posters of the Spanish Civil War tried to pump up morale or denounce the Nationalists in some general way, this poster has the specific purpose of informing Madrid residents of the place to bring their books. The poster neither makes lofty claims regarding the social revolution nor states that literacy can defeat Franco's troops, but it is effective in suggesting what residents in the rearguard can do to help those who fight the war.
Member of Socialisme ou Barbarie group, alongside Cornelius Castoriadis (aka Pierre Chaulieu & Paul Cardan) & Lefort. Lyotard contributed many important articles to its magazine. He joined Lefort in breaking away from S ou B in 1963 to form Pouvoir Ouvrier (Workers Power).
He joined the March 22nd Movement, made up of students from the Nanterre Anarchist Group & other elements. Here he was active alongside Daniel Cohn-Bendit & Jean -Pierre Duteuil (the first a sell-out to social-democracy, the second still an active libertarian communist; the March 22nd Movement had great influence on the events of May-June 1968 in France).
The former specialist of ultraleftist politics [Cornelius Castoriadis, aka Cardan] is awestruck at discovering, along with structuralism & social psychology, an ethnological ideology completely new to him: the fact that the Zuni Indians did not have any history appears to him as a luminous explanation for his own inability to act in our history.
Harford was an I.W.W. activist & a strong believer in 'free love'. She graduated with a Law degree from Melbourne University in 1916, the same year as 'Pig Iron Bob' Menzies.
As coincidence would have it, 'The Age' on Wednesday 21 April 1999 published the text of an inaugural Lesbia Harford Oration on behalf of the VictorianWomen Lawyers. It was delivered by John Harber Phillips, Chief Justice of Victoria.
2001 -- [April 21] FBI Raids Seattle Indy Media Center
The three-day summit, experiencing mass protests like those rocking Seattle during the 1999 World Trade Organization conference, saw virtually every head of state in the Western Hemisphere with the exception of Cuba's Fidel Castro in attendance.
How quickly the sensitive stolen document appeared on the Internet speaks to the sophistication of the movement.
"The fact that you have something of this magnitude out there on the Web, it really shows these groups are strong, resourceful & resilient," a federal source said.
The organization has committed "no clear-cut violation of U.S. law" by posting the document on the Web, & the action may be protected as free speech, according to federal sources.
The breach of security is another embarrassment for the Canadian government, which recently lost a highly sensitive, anti-terrorism document, stolen from a government bureaucrat's car while he was attending a hockey game.
Source:
Article April 24, 2001 in the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer", by Paul Shukovsky
The mass sacking of 1,750 workers at Daewoo, mostly union members, & the beating of the laid off workers led to a rally of over 3,000, calling for Beloved & Respected Comrade Leader President Kim to step down, on April 14th in In-chon, site of the Daewoo factory, & today demonstrations are held nation-wide in 28 cities. The struggle for worker rights & democracy continues, with the KCTU announcing plans for a general strike on May 31st.
Source (no longer online: http://picis.jinbo.net/english/daewoo.htm)
1884 -- [April 22] Explosion over Colchester & Black Rains....
"In Nature, 30-216, a correspondent writes that, upon June 22, 1884, at Fletching, Sussex, southwest of Colchester, there was intence darkness & that rain then brought down flakes of soot in such abundance that it seemed to be 'snowing black.'
This was several months after the shock at Colchester, but my datum for thinking that another explosion or disturbance of some kind, had occurred in the same local sky, is that, as reported by the inmates of one house, a slight shock was felt, upon the 24th of June, at Colchester, showing that the phenomena were continuing. ...Was not the loud report heard upon February 18 probably an explosion in the sky, inasmuch as the sound was great & the quake was little? Were not succeeding phenomena sounds & concussions & the fall of debris from explosions in the sky, acceptably upon April 22, & perhaps continuing until the 24th of June?"
1904 -- [April 22] Testimony by Edward Teller against Oppenheimer...
Excerpted testimony by Edward Teller against Oppenheimer, accused of being a security risk, questioned by Roger Robb, attorney for the Gray Board:
Robb: Do you or do you not believe that Dr. Oppenheimer is a security risk?
Teller: In a great number of instances I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer as — I understood that Dr. Oppenheimer acted — in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues, & his actions frankly appeared to me confused & complicated. To this extent, I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better & therefore trust more. In this very limited sense, I would like to express a feeling that I would feel personally more secure if public matters would rest in other hands.
Robb: ... it would endanger the common defense & security to grant clearance to Dr. Oppenheimer?
Teller: I believe . . . [his] character is such that he would not knowingly & willingly do anything that is designed to endanger the safety of this country. To that extent, therefore, that your question is directed toward intent, I would say I do not see any reason to deny clearance. [But then he added] If it is a question of wisdom & judgment as demonstrated by actions since 1945, then I would say one would be wiser not to grant clearance.
After this exchange, a remarkable scene took place in the hearing room. Teller went over to Oppenheimer, shook his hand & said, "I'm sorry."
Oppenheimer replied, "After what you've just said, I don't understand what you mean." Oppenheimer lost his clearance, & Teller lost most of his friends & associates in the physics community (exactly as he feared, as later revealed in FBI documents) & often cried.
He had numerous times led Oppenheimer to believe he would testify in his support. He claimed he hadn't intended to testify or question Oppenheimer's loyalty ("I don't want to suggest anything of the kind."), FBI records tell otherwise, of an deal planned/orchestrated to damage Oppenheimer as much as possible without rupturing Teller's standing in the science world.
As Halberstam notes in The Fifties, the hearing — "a trial, really — ...was one of the lowest moments in American politics."
The science world was stunned — including Wernher von Braun, a German rocket scientist working for the US who had served Nazi Germany ("in England Oppenheimer would have been knighted for his achievements").
It stank so bad even Harold Green, the AEC security lawyer who drew up the charges against Oppenheimer, was enraged at Teller ("You double-dealing, lying son of a bitch") & resigned, deeming the hearing "a lynching".
Writer John Mason Brown suggested to Oppie he had been subjected to a "dry crucifixion"; Oppie smiled & mused,
"It wasn't so dry. I can still feel the warm blood on my hands."
Daily Bleed Patron Saint, June 15, 2003-2005
German socialist graphic artist, critical humanitarian. Captured the fundamental problems of war, not resolved into victors & vanquished — only into the living
& the dead.
Kathe Kollwitz was an Expressionist printmaker of progressive bent who made searing images of workers suffering in the big new industrial German cities. Her horrifying prints of mothers grasping their dead children grappled with the grief unleashed by the Germans' successive nationalist wars.
Though the critics & public applauded her work, the authorities never took kindly to it, censoring & denouncing such "gutter art" that showed only the ugly side of life. The Nazis, trying to whip up war fever in the late '30s, particularly disliked her pacifist works.
1968 -- [April 23] Occupation & anti-Vietnam War sit-in (23-30th) at Columbia University.
Initially protesting racist policies, during the week they also express dissatisfaction with their own condition & society in general. Five campus buildings are taken over in protest of the university's research for the Department of Defense (DoD), affiliation with the Institute for Defense Analysis & its Pentagon-related research, & construction of athletic facility opposed by neighboring Harlem.
Sparks a wave of student occupations lasting for next several years. Police storm the campus eight days from now, resulting in numerous casualties. Mark Rudd becomes famous as leader, 700+ arrested, & the strike continues for another month.
A rally & occupation of the Low administrative office building at Columbia University, planned to protest the university's participation in the Institute for Defense Analysis is scuttled by conservative students & university security officers. The demonstrators march to the site of a proposed new gymnasium at Morningside Heights to stage a protest in support of neighbors who use the site for recreation. The action eventually results in the occupation of five buildings - Hamilton, Low, Fairweather & Mathematics halls, & the Architecture building. It will culminate seven days later when police storm the buildings & violently remove the students & their supporters at the Columbia administration's request.
April 23: At Columbia University on New York, students opposed to defense contracts & a new gymnasium to be built on Harlem park land occupy several campus buildings. They are routed by city police a week later: 150 injuries, 700 arrests.
1920 -- [April 24] The general strike in Piedmont suppressed
The council movement in Turin begins a strike on March 15, combined with occupation of the factories & resumes production under their own control.
By April 14 the strike is general in Piedmont; in the following days it spread through much of northern Italy, particularly among the dockers & railroad workers. The government had to use warships to land troops at Genoa to march on Turin.
While the councilist program was later approved by the Congress of the Italian Anarchist Union when it met at Bologna on July 1, the Socialist Party & the unions succeeded in sabotaging the strike by keeping it isolated: when Turin was besieged by 20,000 soldiers & police, the party newspaper Avanti refused to print the appeal of the Turin socialist section.
"Prisons are, by nature, political institutions erected to serve political interests of those in power. They are instruments designed to protect, not the people, but the status quo, & its historical usage's against Africans, Indians, workers & radicals certainly supports that notion.
'Law' is similarly but a political expression & as such, usually a tool against the poor, the powerless & the unpopular. Rich men don't come to prison; & when they break laws they leave room for loopholes."
Ravachol had been pointed out to police by a waiter (the boy Jules Lhérot) in the restaurant Very, & last night — before his trial today — the restaurant was bombed, killing its owner & a customer. Lhérot fled the country, & a long cycle of vendetta between government repression & "illegalist" anarchists follows. Ravachol's trial resulted in a sentence of life at forced labor. The author of the present attack, the anarchist Théodule Miller, was arrested in London in June 1894. Judged in July, he was sent to prison, where he died July 25, 1907. Octave Mirbeau had an article appear a week after the bombing in "L'Endehors" 52 (May 1, 1892), giving one of the most balanced anarchist views of Ravachol's terrorist activity. See:
Perrier joined "l'Union Anarchiste" in the 1920s, & became secretary of the fédération du Nord-Pas-de-Calais, & where he fought the influence of the Communist Party in his union.
In 1923-24, Albert Perrier published the newspaper "Le Combat," & in the 1930s joined the working cooperative "La Ruche."
In February 1934, he was jailed for organizing an antifascist demonstration in the streets of Périgueux.
In August 1936, he went to Spain with a first French convoy of food & weapons for the C.N.T.- F.A.I., & for the next two 2 years helped supply the Spanish anarchists in spite of a French blockade. During the last months of the revolution Perrier facilitated the passage of those escaping from Spain.
Perrier was involved in the anti-Nazi Resistance movement in France, & was arrested & sent to a prison camp for 18 months (from which he escaped).
Following the war he took up again his trade-union & libertarian activities, particularly agitating for the construction of affordable housing.
That is surely at the heart of the Anzac story,
the Australian legend which emerged from the war.
It is a legend not of sweeping military victories
so much as triumphs against the odds,
of courage & ingenuity in adversity.
It is a legend of free & independent spirits
whose discipline derived less from military formalities
& customs than from the bonds of mateship
& the demands of necessity.
Former Beloved & Respected Comrade Leader Prime Minister of Australia,
the Hon Mr Paul Keating,
at the Entombment of the Unknown Soldier
at the Australian War Memorial, 1993
Thanks to Bleedster Eric for this & the poem by Laurence Binyon on today's Daily Bleed page
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1898 -- [April 26] US: Emma Goldman in Frisco, California for speaking engagements, late April-May.
Red Emma opens with a lecture on "Patriotism," which, following the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, becomes her most important & successful lecture.
Goldman's other speeches — at least four, including a talk at a May Day celebration — are well attended & receive fair press coverage.
Goldman also debates the German socialist Emil Lies, editor of the "Tageblatt".
Goldman especially impressed with Abe Isaak, former editor of the "Firebrand" & current editor of Free Society, who had recently settled in San Francisco with his family. Goldman's San Francisco activities supported in part by local single-taxers.
While in Frisco, Goldman meets the young socialist Anna Strunsky (Walling), who becomes a lifelong friend & associate, & through Strunsky, the socialist/novelist Jack London.
"Take me this way: a stray guest, a bird of passage, splashing with salt-rimed wings through a brief moment of your life — a rude & blundering bird, used to large airs & great spaces, unaccustomed to the amenities of confined existence."
— Jack London to Anna Strunsky, December 21, 1899; first published in The Masses, July 1917
In San Jose, her lecture on "Patriotism" is so controversial that she has difficulty maintaining control of the platform.
From San Jose, she travels for the first time to Los Angeles, sponsored by a wealthy acquaintance from New Mexico. Lectures to several large audiences. Goldman severs her relationship with her sponsor when he proposes marriage; she continues lecturing among Jewish sympathizers & organizes a group to conduct ongoing anarchist activities.
Goldman is denounced in the "Freiheit" for having alienated workers from anarchism when, under the direction of her wealthy manager, she lectured & resided in expensive halls & hotels.
Following Los Angeles, she returns to San Francisco for additional lectures.
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1935 -- [April 26] American poet Charles Plymell lives...
A line I later worked into one of my political poems that first appeared in Evergreen Review about "Woodstock" recalled the words I had heard my father say when talking politics on the high seas, "The likes of you & me, sailor, are just ballast."
I am a drifter, a transient, the very thought of setting out for somewhere has always stirred me. My politics lean toward anarchism, & in general I am wary of
government & authority. I do not vote, but I consider myself more politically informed than the average person. Philosophically, as well as politically, my thoughts
eventually had to rest, albeit paradoxically, in an open-ended rather than a closed system. My wilder side could be attributed to family traits & a constantly
changing environment; nevertheless, I liked having a little bit of the "outlaw" in me, tempered by the realism of a timeless lyric.
1911 -- [April 27] Premiere issue of the daily "La Bataille Syndicaliste", the official journal of the C.G.T. & its militant syndicalistes-révolutionnaires, including many anarchistes. Published in Paris, France, it rapidly becomes one of the important militant papers, with a large number of collaborators & a circulation of 45,500 by December of 1912. Ceasing publication with its 1638 issue in October 1915, it is succeeded by "La Bataille" (The Battle).
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2007 -- John Badcock, Jr. (18??-??)
There is currently scant biographical information available on this British individualist anarchist, lecturer, writer.
... more
Slaves to Duty. By John Badcock, Jr. "A unique addition to the pamphlet literature of Anarchism. It assails the morality superstititon as the foundation of the various schemes for the exploitation of mankind. Max Stirner himself does not expound the doctrine of Egoism in bolder fashion." 30 pages.
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1874 -- [April 28] Karl Krauss
Obrad Savic Speed Memories
Krauss in Belgrade
I recently attended the opening night of Karl Krauss's play The Last Days of Mankind in the Yugoslav Drama Theatre, a house which still preserves traces of the memory of Europe. That evening, I wrote down on my copy of the playbill the following: "Karl Krauss on the stage! Voice of apocalypse on the boards! Ironist on the public platform! The Last Days of Mankind in Belgrade! This is not a good sign - it might be a first-class theatrical provocation, a doubtful theatrical gesture, a belated literary-theatrical representation of Krauss's discourse of catastrophe".
I witnessed an undoubtedly brave theatrical gesture, a courageous artistic act which stepped out in protest & publicly said the unspoken truth, known by all, about the local war in Yugoslavia. It was only on the stage, in the symbolic space, that Belgrade faced its drastic role in the Yugoslav drama. For a moment I believed that this symbolic redemption might start off that long-delayed wave of final admission of guilt which could at least partly prevent the peace-making hypocrisy of the authorities who now wish to forget the war they themselves caused. Sadly, the hesitant, reserved & very cold reception of this pacifist play demonstrated that even the best in this milieu are not yet ready to openly admit & take upon themselves part of their own blame. It was precisely to such a milieu that Krauss directed his apocalyptic message from the stage: "This play is the blood of your blood... it can be reached by no waking senses, by no living memories". It is only those who have lived through the tragedy of mankind who know, feel & remember that it is not true that you live only once. On the contrary, you never live at all.
28 Aprile. Mussolini, fermato il giorno precedente mentre tentava la fuga in Svizzera, viene fucilato a Giulino di Mezzegra (Como) insieme all'amante Claretta Petacci. A Dongo vengono fucilati il segretario del partito Alessandro Pavolini, il ministro della cultura popolare Fernando Mezzasoma, il ministro dell'interno Paolo Zerbino, l'ex deputato comunista Nicola Bombacci. A Milano vengono fucilati l'ex segretario del partito fascista Achille Starace, a Vimercate (Milano) l'ex direttore del quotidiano 'Il regime fascista', Roberto Farinacci. La preoccupazione sembra quella di evitare processi lunghi che metterebbero in luce le responsabilità di un intero popolo e soprattutto il coinvolgimento di molti dei nuovi padroni. Si calcola che circa 15.000 persone siano state ammazzate dai nuovi padroni in quanto esponenti del regime perdente. Il nuovo potere ha bisogno di posti a cui piazzare i propri uomini. Le esecuzioni sommarie sono una sorta di licenziamento spiccio e definitivo.
29 Aprile. I cadaveri di Mussolini, della Petacci e degli altri gerarchi fascisti fucilati il giorno prima sono appesi a testa in giù a un distributore di benzina a Piazza Loreto (Milano). Il nuovo potere ha bisogno di esorcizzare il vecchio e di mostrare al popolo chi ha ora le redini del comando.
I rappresentanti del comando tedesco in Italia firmano la resa che entrerà in vigore il 2 Maggio.
1997 -- [April 28] Trials of the PRD (People's Democratic Party) in Jakarta
The PRD activists came to the courtroom for the opening of the session at
around 10am.
Wearing black headbands with the slogan "Democracy is dead" & T-shirts stating "Boycott the Elections" &
singing songs such as "We Shall Overcome," they entered the courtroom under guard, told the judges they did not recognize the
authority of the court & were then permitted to exit to a nearby holding cell."
What was the PRD ultimately convicted of? The judges' final decision, which reads more like a political statement than a legal document, makes it perfectly clear that the PRD's only crime was to criticize the government.
The judges made no mention of the charges for which the PRD was originally arrested: masterminding the July 27 riot & propagating a communist ideology.
The Suharto regime, unable to find anything to substantiate those charges that top officials hyped in the media last September, dropped them before the trial began. http://www.reocities.com/kk_abacus/asiaocean.html
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1967 --
US:
April 29, 1967
An SI post office box is opened in New York.
1886 -- [April 30] On the eve of May 1, 50,000 workers in Chicago are on strike.
30,000 more swell their ranks tomorrow, bringing most of Chicago manufacturing to a standstill.
Chicago cops will kill four unionists on the 3rd.
A demonstration is held on the 4th in Haymarket Square; a cop is killed by a never identified assailant & eight anarchists (some not in attendance) tried for murder & sentenced to death.
Late 1885/Early 1886 Hundreds of thousands of American workers, increasingly determined to resist subjugation to capitalist power, poured into a fledgling labor organization, the Knights of Labor.
Beginning on May 1, 1886, they took to the streets to demand the universal adoption of the eight hour day. Chicago was the center of the movement. Workers there had been agitating for an eight hour day for months.
This evening fears of violent class conflict gripped the city. No violence occurred on May 1 — a Saturday — or May 2. But on Monday, May 3, a fight involving hundreds broke out at McCormick Reaper between locked-out unionists & the non-unionist workers McCormick hired to replace them.
The Chicago police, swollen in number & heavily armed, quickly moved in with clubs & guns to restore order. They left four unionists dead & many others wounded. Angered by the deadly force of the police, a group of anarchists, led by August Spies & Albert Parsons, called on workers to arm themselves & participate in a massive protest demonstration in Haymarket Square on Tuesday evening, May 4. The demonstration appeared to be a complete bust, with only 3,000 assembling. But near the end of the evening, an individual, whose identity is still in dispute, threw a bomb that killed seven policemen & injured 67 others. Hysterical city & state government officials rounded up eight anarchists, tried them for murder, & sentenced them to death.
1899 -- [April 30] US: Coeur d'Alene, Idaho miner's strike, 1,200 workers arrested, put into specially erected bullpens until the strikes are broken.
In 1892, area mine workers launched a generation of deadly warfare against armed & deputized strikebreakers.
This year, with mine owners refusing to recognize unions & wildcat strikers dynamiting mines, Governor Frank Steunenberg declared parts of Idaho were "in a state of insurrection & rebellion." Under martial law, President McKinley sent federal troops.
Steunenberg was a man of modest means before election, but he left office rich, thanks to — surprise! — the mining companies.
In December 1905, however, someone tied fish line to the front gate of his huge sheep ranch. He opened the pearly gate & set off a dynamite charge that instantly killed him.
"Also called 'nomadology', employing "rhizomatic writing," Deleuze's method champions the deterritorialization & decoding of structures of domination, by which capitalism will supersede itself through its own dynamic. With his sometime partner, Felix Guattari, with whom he shares a specialization in psychoanalysis, he hopes to see the system's schizophrenic tendency intensified to the point of shattering. Deleuze seems to share...the absurdist conviction of Yoshimoto Takai that consumption constitutes a new form of resistance...
The postmodern "death of the subject" theme, in his & Guattari's best-known work, Anti-Oedipus, & subsequently, 'Desiring machines', formed by the coupling of parts, human & nonhuman, with no distinction between them, seek to replace humans as the focus of his social theory...
One cannot escape the feeling, despite his supposedly radical intention, of an embrace of alienation, even a wallowing in estrangement & decadence. "
anti-CopyRite 1997-3000, more or less Subscribe to daily email excerpts & updates (include the words 'subscribe bleed' in subject field), or send questions, additions, corrections to: BleedMeister David Brown
See also: Anarchist Encyclopedia http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm Stan Iverson Memorial Library http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/ Anarchist Time Line / Chronology http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/indexTimeline.htm
En-tête du numéro du 20 janvier 1895 (coll. perso)
US: Back in New York this month, Emma Goldman resides with Edward Brady in a German neighborhood on Eleventh Street
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_profilepage&v=w9YyBQdzLNY
[Details / context]
SITUATIONIST CHRONOLOGY
Also during this month Guy Debord is interviewed on Belgian radio, speaking at length on industrial painting.
prisoners in Franco's Spain, but also for the Spanish antifascists who were deported to labor camps in the Soviet Union after the Civil War. These prisoners were released only in 1956.
[Daily Bleed citation]
